Arctic Sea Ice Road Maps
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State of Approach

Overview
Version published: 
September 13, 2024 - 9:57pm
September 13, 2024 - 9:57pm September 13, 2024 - 9:28pm September 13, 2024 - 3:58pm September 12, 2024 - 9:06pm September 12, 2024 - 9:04pm September 12, 2024 - 8:58pm September 9, 2024 - 1:38pm September 5, 2024 - 5:04am August 28, 2024 - 3:18am

Glossary of road map assessment parameters

Description of approach

  • Snow is the most reflective material on Earth (Holland et al. 2021), and snow-covered sea ice has a higher albedo than sea ice alone. Some proposals for thickening ice via pumping water include a component of adding snow. Snow could be added directly through a device on or near the sea ice, or potentially through cloud seeding. Snow addition has also been suggested as a strategy to stabilize ice sheets (Feldmann et al. 2019). Snow on sea ice can decrease ice growth, but it also decreases surface ice melt (Holland et al. 2021). As warming continues, and in addition to potential for increased black carbon pollution, snow may melt faster, decreasing the potential of this approach. For an additional approach with the intent of increasing albedo of sea ice see hollow glass microspheres.

Description of what it does mechanistically

  • Expected physical changes (global)
    • No expected global physical changes.
  • Expected physical changes (Arctic region)
    • Increases surface albedo, decreases solar absorption, changes insolation of sea ice or other surface.

Spatial extent (size)

  • Unknown
    • Sea ice and other ice areas in the Arctic.

Where applied – vertically

  • Surface of sea ice, glaciers
    • Should not be considered for areas in the Arctic near permafrost, as increased snow on permafrost in the Arctic has accelerated permafrost thawing and increased carbon emissions (Pedron et al. 2023 found that more snow thawed permafrost and led to a four-fold increase in the amount of organic matter available for microbial decomposition).

Where applied – geographically (regional vs global application, is it targeting the Arctic?)

  • Sea ice and other ice areas in the Arctic

When effective (summer, winter, all year)

  • Increasing snow volume increases sea ice volume all year; increases in ice area are most pronounced during summer months (Holland et al. 2021).
Glossary of road map assessment parameters Description of approach
  • Snow is the most reflective material on Earth (Holland et al. 2021), and snow-covered sea ice has a higher albedo than sea ice alone. Some proposals for thickening ice via pumping water include a component of adding snow. Snow could be added directly through a device on or near the sea ice, or potentially through cloud seeding. Snow addition has also been suggested as a strategy to stabilize ice sheets (Feldmann et al. 2019). Snow on sea ice can decrease ice growth, but it also decreases surface ice melt (Holland et al. 2021). As warming continues, and in addition to potential for increased black carbon pollution, snow may melt faster, decreasing the potential of this approach. For an additional approach with the intent of increasing albedo of sea ice see hollow glass microspheres.
Description of what it does mechanistically
  • Expected physical changes (global)
    • No expected global physical changes.
  • Expected physical changes (Arctic region)
    • Increases surface albedo, decreases solar absorption, changes insolation of sea ice or other surface.
Spatial extent (size)
  • Unknown
    • Sea ice and other ice areas in the Arctic.
Where applied – vertically
  • Surface of sea ice, glaciers
    • Should not be considered for areas in the Arctic near permafrost, as increased snow on permafrost in the Arctic has accelerated permafrost thawing and increased carbon emissions (Pedron et al. 2023 found that more snow thawed permafrost and led to a four-fold increase in the amount of organic matter available for microbial decomposition).
Where applied – geographically (regional vs global application, is it targeting the Arctic?)
  • Sea ice and other ice areas in the Arctic
When effective (summer, winter, all year)
  • Increasing snow volume increases sea ice volume all year; increases in ice area are most pronounced during summer months (Holland et al. 2021).
Glossary of road map assessment parameters Description of approach
  • Snow is the most reflective material on Earth (Holland et al. 2021), and snow-covered sea ice has a higher albedo than sea ice alone. Some proposals for thickening ice via pumping water include a component of adding snow. Snow could be added directly through a device on or near the sea ice, or potentially through cloud seeding. Snow addition has also been suggested as a strategy to stabilize ice sheets (Feldmann et al. 2019). Snow on sea ice can decrease ice growth, but it also decreases surface ice melt (Holland et al. 2021). As warming continues, and in addition to potential for increased black carbon pollution, snow may melt faster, decreasing the potential of this approach. For an additional approach with the intent of increasing albedo of sea ice see hollow glass microspheres.
Description of what it does mechanistically
  • Expected physical changes (global)
    • No expected global physical changes.
  • Expected physical changes (Arctic region)
    • Increases surface albedo, decreases solar absorption, changes insolation of sea ice or other surface.
Spatial extent (size)
  • Unknown
    • Sea ice and other ice areas in the Arctic.
Where applied – vertically
  • Surface of sea ice, glaciers
    • Should not be considered for areas in the Arctic near permafrost, as increased snow on permafrost in the Arctic has accelerated permafrost thawing and increased carbon emissions (Pedron et al. 2023 found that more snow thawed permafrost and led to a four-fold increase in the amount of organic matter available for microbial decomposition).
Where applied – geographically (regional vs global application, is it targeting the Arctic?)
  • Sea ice and other ice areas in the Arctic.
When effective (summer, winter, all year)
  • Increasing snow volume increases sea ice volume all year; increases in ice area are most pronounced during summer months (Holland et al. 2021).
Glossary of road map assessment parameters Description of approach
  • Snow is the most reflective material on Earth (Holland et al. 2021), and snow-covered sea ice has a higher albedo than sea ice alone. Some proposals for thickening ice via pumping water include a component of adding snow. Snow could be added directly through a device on or near the sea ice, or potentially through cloud seeding. Snow addition has also been suggested as a strategy to stabilize ice sheets (Feldmann et al. 2019). Snow on sea ice can decrease ice growth, but it also decreases surface ice melt (Holland et al. 2021). As warming continues, and in addition to potential for increased black carbon pollution, snow may melt faster, decreasing the potential of this approach. For an additional approach with the intent of increasing albedo of sea ice see hollow glass microspheres.
Description of what it does mechanistically
  • Expected physical changes (global)
    • No expected global physical changes.
  • Expected physical changes (Arctic region)
    • Increases surface albedo, decreases solar absorption, changes insolation of sea ice or other surface.
Spatial extent (size)
  • Unknown
    • Sea ice and other ice areas in the Arctic
Where applied – vertically
  • Surface of sea ice, glaciers
    • Should not be considered for areas in the Arctic near permafrost, as increased snow on permafrost in the Arctic has accelerated permafrost thawing and increased carbon emissions (Pedron et al. 2023 found that more snow thawed permafrost and led to a four-fold increase in the amount of organic matter available for microbial decomposition).
Where applied – geographically (regional vs global application, is it targeting the Arctic?)
  • Sea ice and other ice areas in the Arctic
When effective (summer, winter, all year)
  • Increasing snow volume increases sea ice volume all year; increases in ice area are most pronounced during summer months (Holland et al. 2021).
Glossary of road map assessment parameters Description of approach
  • Snow is the most reflective material on Earth (Holland et al. 2021), and snow-covered sea ice has a higher albedo than sea ice alone. Some proposals for thickening ice via pumping water include a component of adding snow. Snow could be added directly through a device on or near the sea ice, or potentially through cloud seeding. Snow addition has also been suggested as a strategy to stabilize ice sheets (Feldmann et al. 2019). Snow on sea ice can decrease ice growth, but it also decreases surface ice melt (Holland et al. 2021). As warming continues, and in addition to potential for increased black carbon pollution, snow may melt faster, decreasing the potential of this approach. For an additional approach with the intent of increasing albedo of sea ice see hollow glass microspheres.
Description of what it does mechanistically
  • Expected physical changes (global)
    • No expected global physical changes.
  • Expected physical changes (Arctic region)
    • Increases surface albedo, decreases solar absorption, changes insolation of sea ice or other surface.
Spatial extent (size)
  • Unknown
    • Sea ice and other ice areas in the Arctic
Where applied – vertically
  • Surface of sea ice, glaciers
    • Should not be considered for areas in the Arctic near permafrost, as increased snow on permafrost in the Arctic has accelerated permafrost thawing and increased carbon emissions (Pedron et al. 2023 found that more snow thawed permafrost and led to a four-fold increase in the amount of organic matter available for microbial decomposition).
Where applied – geographically (regional vs global application, is it targeting the Arctic?)
  • Sea ice and other ice areas in the Arctic
When effective (summer, winter, all year)
  • Increasing snow volume increases sea ice volume all year, increases in ice area are most pronounced during summer months (Holland et al. 2021)
Glossary of road map assessment parameters Description of approach
  • Snow is the most reflective material on Earth (Holland et al. 2021), and snow-covered sea ice has a higher albedo than sea ice alone. Some proposals for thickening ice via pumping water include a component of adding snow. Snow could be added directly through a device on or near the sea ice, or potentially through cloud seeding. Snow addition has also been suggested as a strategy to stabilize ice sheets (Feldmann et al. 2019). Snow on sea ice can decrease ice growth, but it also decreases surface ice melt (Holland et al. 2021). As warming continues, and in addition to potential for increased black carbon pollution, snow may melt faster, decreasing the potential of this approach. For an additional approach with the intent of increasing albedo of sea ice see hollow glass microspheres.
Description of what it does mechanistically
  • Expected physical changes (global)
    • No expected global physical changes.
  • Expected physical changes (Arctic region)
    • Increases surface albedo, decreases solar absorption, changes insolation of sea ice or other surface.
Spatial extent (size)
  • Unknown
    • Sea ice and other ice areas in the Arctic
Where applied – vertically
  • Surface of sea ice, glaciers
    • Should not be considered for areas in the Arctic near permafrost, as increased snow on permafrost in the Arctic has accelerated permafrost thawing and increased carbon emissions (Pedron et al. 2023 found that more snow thawed permafrost and led to a four-fold increase in the amount of organic matter available for microbial decomposition).
Where applied – geographically (regional vs global application, is it targeting the Arctic?)
  • Sea ice and other ice areas in the Arctic
When effective (summer, winter, all year)
  • Increasing snow volume increases sea ice volume all year, increases in ice area are most pronounced during summer months (Holland et al. 2021)
Glossary Description of approach
  • Snow is the most reflective material on Earth (Holland et al. 2021), and snow-covered sea ice has a higher albedo than sea ice alone. Some proposals for thickening ice via pumping water include a component of adding snow. Snow could be added directly through a device on or near the sea ice, or potentially through cloud seeding. Snow addition has also been suggested as a strategy to stabilize ice sheets (Feldmann et al. 2019). Snow on sea ice can decrease ice growth, but it also decreases surface ice melt (Holland et al. 2021). As warming continues, and in addition to potential for increased black carbon pollution, snow may melt faster, decreasing the potential of this approach. For an additional approach with the intent of increasing albedo of sea ice see hollow glass microspheres.
Description of what it does mechanistically
  • Expected physical changes (global)
    • No expected global physical changes.
  • Expected physical changes (Arctic region)
    • Increases surface albedo, decreases solar absorption, changes insolation of sea ice or other surface.
Spatial extent (size)
  • Unknown
    • Sea ice and other ice areas in the Arctic
Where applied – vertically
  • Surface of sea ice, glaciers
    • Should not be considered for areas in the Arctic near permafrost, as increased snow on permafrost in the Arctic has accelerated permafrost thawing and increased carbon emissions (Pedron et al. 2023 found that more snow thawed permafrost and led to a four-fold increase in the amount of organic matter available for microbial decomposition).
Where applied – geographically (regional vs global application, is it targeting the Arctic?)
  • Sea ice and other ice areas in the Arctic
When effective (summer, winter, all year)
  • Increasing snow volume increases sea ice volume all year, increases in ice area are most pronounced during summer months (Holland et al. 2021)
Description of approach
  • Snow is the most reflective material on Earth (Holland et al. 2021), and snow-covered sea ice has a higher albedo than sea ice alone. Some proposals for thickening ice via pumping water include a component of adding snow. Snow could be added directly through a device on or near the sea ice, or potentially through cloud seeding. Snow addition has also been suggested as a strategy to stabilize ice sheets (Feldmann et al. 2019). Snow on sea ice can decrease ice growth, but it also decreases surface ice melt (Holland et al. 2021). As warming continues, and in addition to potential for increased black carbon pollution, snow may melt faster, decreasing the potential of this approach. For an additional approach with the intent of increasing albedo of sea ice see hollow glass microspheres.
Description of what it does mechanistically
  • Expected physical changes (global)
    • No expected global physical changes.
  • Expected physical changes (Arctic region)
    • Increases surface albedo, decreases solar absorption, changes insolation of sea ice or other surface.
Spatial extent (size)
  • Unknown
    • Sea ice and other ice areas in the Arctic
Where applied – vertically
  • Surface of sea ice, glaciers
    • Should not be considered for areas in the Arctic near permafrost, as increased snow on permafrost in the Arctic has accelerated permafrost thawing and increased carbon emissions (Pedron et al. 2023 found that more snow thawed permafrost and led to a four-fold increase in the amount of organic matter available for microbial decomposition).
Where applied – geographically (regional vs global application, is it targeting the Arctic?)
  • Sea ice and other ice areas in the Arctic
When effective (summer, winter, all year)
  • Increasing snow volume increases sea ice volume all year, increases in ice area are most pronounced during summer months (Holland et al. 2021)
Description of approach
  • Snow is the most reflective material on Earth (Holland et al. 2021), and snow-covered sea ice has a higher albedo than sea ice alone. Some proposals for thickening ice via pumping water include a component of adding snow. Snow could be added directly through a device on or near the sea ice, or potentially through cloud seeding. Snow addition has also been suggested as a strategy to stabilize ice sheets (Feldmann et al. 2019). Snow on sea ice can decrease ice growth, but it also decreases surface ice melt (Holland et al. 2021). As warming continues, and in addition to potential for increased black carbon pollution, snow may melt faster, decreasing the potential of this approach. For an additional approach with the intent of increasing albedo of sea ice see hollow glass microspheres.
Description of what it does mechanistically
  • Expected physical changes (global)
    • No expected global physical changes.
  • Expected physical changes (Arctic region)
    • Increases surface albedo, decreases solar absorption, changes insolation of sea ice or other surface.
Spatial extent (size)
  • Unknown
    • Sea ice and other ice areas in the Arctic
Where applied – vertically
  • Surface of sea ice, glaciers
    • Should not be considered for areas in the Arctic near permafrost, as increased snow on permafrost in the Arctic has accelerated permafrost thawing and increased carbon emissions (Pedron et al. 2023 found that more snow thawed permafrost and led to a four-fold increase in the amount of organic matter available for microbial decomposition).
Where applied – geographically (regional vs global application, is it targeting the Arctic?)
  • Sea ice and other ice areas in the Arctic
When effective? (summer, winter, all year)
  • Increasing snow volume increases sea ice volume all year, increases in ice area are most pronounced during summer months (Holland et al. 2021)

Projects from Ocean CDR Community

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Potential
Version published: 
September 13, 2024 - 10:24pm
September 13, 2024 - 10:24pm September 13, 2024 - 10:00pm September 13, 2024 - 9:22pm September 13, 2024 - 3:59pm September 11, 2024 - 3:14pm September 6, 2024 - 9:48pm September 5, 2024 - 5:08am August 28, 2024 - 3:18am

Impact on

Albedo

  • Increases of 0.27-0.35

Temperature (Arctic region and global)

  • Global
    • Unknown
      • Likely small global impact.
  • Arctic region
    • Unknown
      • Possible regional impact.

Radiation budget

  • Global
    • Unknown
      • Likely small global impact.
  • Arctic region
    • Unknown
      • Possible regional impact.

Sea ice

  • Direct or indirect impact on sea ice?
    • Directly applied to sea ice.
  • New or old ice?
    • Both
  • Impact on sea ice
    • Increasing snow volume increases sea ice volume in spring and summer months (Holland et al. 2021). Snow can slow ice growth during winter.

Scalability

Spatial scalability

  • Unknown
    • Snow production to stabilize glaciers has been deemed not feasibly scalable due to technological requirements and cost (van Wijngaarden et al. 2023). Technology would need to be adapted for a sea ice environment and then scaled.

Efficiency

  • Unknown

Timeline to scalability

  • Unknown
    • Adding snow to sea ice could be logistically challenging in places.

Timeline to global impact (has to be within 20 yr)

  • Unknown

Timeline to Arctic region impact (has to be within 20 yr)

  • Unknown

Cost

Economic cost

  • Unknown
    • Cost for snow production to stabilize glaciers in Europe was estimated at $4.3 USD/m2 around 2010 based on ski resort snow production, but this number is likely outdated and is based on availability of freshwater nearby (Abermann et al. 2022).

CO2 footprint

  • Unknown
    • Snowmaking would require a substantial amount of water. Making snow from seawater would require a desalination procedure, which can be energy-intensive.
    • A study looking at snow addition onto ice sheets noted that such a procedure would require a significant amount of energy and infrastructure to make the snow (Feldmann et al. 2019).
    • Current snowmaking practices in ski resorts require 3.5-4.3 kWh electricity per m³ (Energi & Kylanalys 2011). 1 square mile of area with 1 m snow would require 2,500,000 m³ of snow and is estimated to require 2.5 GWh (Moseman 2022).

Impact on

Albedo
  • Increases of 0.27-0.35
Temperature (Arctic region and global)
  • Global
    • Unknown
      • Likely small global impact.
  • Arctic region
    • Unknown
      • Possible regional impact.
Radiation budget
  • Global
    • Unknown
      • Likely small global impact.
  • Arctic region
    • Unknown
      • Possible regional impact.
Sea ice
  • Direct or indirect impact on sea ice?
    • Directly applied to sea ice.
  • New or old ice?
    • Both
  • Impact on sea ice
    • Increasing snow volume increases sea ice volume in spring and summer months (Holland et al. 2021). Snow can slow ice growth during winter.

Scalability

Spatial scalability
  • Unknown
    • Snow production to stabilize glaciers has been deemed not feasibly scalable due to technological requirements and cost (van Wijngaarden et al. 2023). Technology would need to be adapted for a sea ice environment and then scaled.
Efficiency
  • Unknown
Timeline to scalability
  • Unknown
    • Adding snow to sea ice could be logistically challenging in places.
Timeline to global impact (has to be within 20 yr)
  • Unknown
Timeline to Arctic region impact (has to be within 20 yr)
  • Unknown

Cost

Economic cost
  • Unknown
    • Cost for snow production to stabilize glaciers in Europe was estimated at $4.3 USD/m2 around 2010 based on ski resort snow production, but this number is likely outdated and is based on availability of freshwater nearby (Abermann et al. 2022).
CO2 footprint
  • Unknown
    • Snowmaking would require a substantial amount of water. Making snow from seawater would require a desalination procedure, which can be energy-intensive.
    • A study looking at snow addition onto ice sheets noted that such a procedure would require a significant amount of energy and infrastructure to make the snow (Feldmann et al. 2019).
    • Current snowmaking practices in ski resorts require 3.5-4.3 kWh electricity per m³ (Energi & Kylanalys 2011). 1 square mile of area with 1 m snow would require 2,500,000 m³ of snow and is estimated to require 2.5 GWh (Moseman 2022).

Impact on

Albedo
  • Increases of 0.27-0.35
Temperature (Arctic region and global)
  • Global
    • Unknown
      • Likely small global impact.
  • Arctic region
    • Unknown
      • Possible regional impact.
Radiation budget
  • Global
    • Unknown
      • Likely small global impact.
  • Arctic region
    • Unknown
      • Possible regional impact.
Sea ice
  • Direct or indirect impact on sea ice?
    • Directly applied to sea ice.
  • New or old ice?
    • Both
  • Impact on sea ice
    • Increasing snow volume increases sea ice volume in spring and summer months (Holland et al. 2021). Snow can slow ice growth during winter.

Scalability

Spatial scalability
  • Unknown
    • Snow production to stabilize glaciers has been deemed not feasibly scalable due to technological requirements and cost (van Wijngaarden et al. 2023). Technology would need to be adapted for a sea ice environment and then scaled.
Efficiency
  • Unknown
Timeline to scalability
  • Unknown
    • Adding snow to sea ice could be logistically challenging in places.
Timeline to global impact (has to be within 20 yr)
  • Unknown
Timeline to Arctic region impact (has to be within 20 yr)
  • Unknown

Cost

Economic cost
  • Unknown
CO2 footprint
  • Unknown
    • Snowmaking would require a substantial amount of water. Making snow from seawater would require a desalination procedure, which can be energy-intensive.
    • A study looking at snow addition onto ice sheets noted that such a procedure would require a significant amount of energy and infrastructure to make the snow (Feldmann et al. 2019).
    • Current snowmaking practices in ski resorts require 3.5-4.3 kWh electricity per m³ (Energi & Kylanalys 2011). 1 square mile of area with 1 m snow would require 2,500,000 m³ of snow and is estimated to require 2.5 GWh (Moseman 2022).

Impact on

Albedo
  • Increases of 0.27-0.35
Temperature (Arctic region and global)
  • Global
    • Unknown
      • Likely small global impact.
  • Arctic region
    • Unknown
      • Possible regional impact.
Radiation budget
  • Global
    • Unknown
      • Likely small global impact.
  • Arctic region
    • Unknown
      • Possible regional impact.
Sea ice
  • Direct or indirect impact on sea ice?
    • Directly applied to sea ice.
  • New or old ice?
    • Both
  • Impact on sea ice
    • Increasing snow volume increases sea ice volume in spring and summer months (Holland et al. 2021). Snow can slow ice growth during winter.

Scalability

Spatial scalability
  • Unknown
Efficiency
  • Unknown
Timeline to scalability
  • Unknown
    • Adding snow to sea ice could be logistically challenging in places.
Timeline to global impact (has to be within 20 yr)
  • Unknown
Timeline to Arctic region impact (has to be within 20 yr)
  • Unknown

Cost

Economic cost
  • Unknown
CO2 footprint
  • Unknown
    • Snowmaking would require a substantial amount of water. Making snow from seawater would require a desalination procedure, which can be energy-intensive.
    • A study looking at snow addition onto ice sheets noted that such a procedure would require a significant amount of energy and infrastructure to make the snow (Feldmann et al. 2019).
    • Current snowmaking practices in ski resorts require 3.5-4.3 kWh electricity per m³ (Energi & Kylanalys 2011). 1 square mile of area with 1 m snow would require 2,500,000 m³ of snow and is estimated to require 2.5 GWh (Moseman 2022).

Impact on

Albedo
  • Increases of 0.27-0.35
Temperature (Arctic region and global)
  • Global
    • Unknown
      • Likely small global impact
  • Arctic region
    • Unknown
      • Possible regional impact
Radiation budget
  • Global
    • Unknown
      • Likely small global impact
  • Arctic region
    • Unknown
      • Possible regional impact
Sea ice
  • Direct or indirect impact on sea ice?
    • Directly applied to sea ice
  • New or old ice?
    • Both
  • Impact on sea ice
    • Increasing snow volume increases sea ice volume in spring and summer months (Holland et al. 2021). Snow can slow ice growth during winter.

Scalability

Spatial scalability
  • Unknown
Efficiency
  • Unknown
Timeline to scalability
  • Unknown
    • Adding snow to sea ice could be logistically challenging in places.
Timeline to global impact (has to be within 20 yr)
  • Unknown
Timeline to Arctic region impact (has to be within 20 yr)
  • Unknown

Cost

Economic cost
  • Unknown
CO2 footprint
  • Unknown
    • Snowmaking would require a substantial amount of water. Making snow from seawater would require a desalination procedure, which can be energy intensive.
    • A study looking at snow addition onto ice sheets noted that such a procedure would require a significant amount of energy and infrastructure to make the snow (Feldmann et al. 2019).
    • Current snowmaking practices in ski resorts require 3.5-4.3 kWh electricity per m³ (Energi & Kylanalys 2011). 1 square mile of area with 1 m snow would require 2,500,000 m³ of snow and is estimated to require 2.5 GWh (Moseman 2022).

Impact on

Albedo
  • Increases of 0.27-0.35
Temperature (Arctic region and global)
  • Global
    • Unknown
      • Likely small global impact
  • Arctic region
    • Unknown
      • Possible regional impact
Radiation budget
  • Global
    • Unknown
      • Likely small global impact
  • Arctic region
    • Unknown
      • Possible regional impact
Sea ice
  • Direct or indirect impact on sea ice?
    • Directly applied to sea ice
  • New or old ice?
    • Both
  • Impact on sea ice
    • Increasing snow volume increases sea ice volume in spring and summer months (Holland et al. 2021). Snow can slow ice growth during winter.

Scalability

Spatial scalability
  • Unknown
Efficiency
  • Unknown
Timeline to scalability
  • Unknown
    • Adding snow to sea ice could be logistically challenging in places
Timeline to global impact (has to be within 20 yr)
  • Unknown
Timeline to Arctic region impact (has to be within 20 yr)
  • Unknown

Cost

Economic cost
  • Unknown
CO2 footprint
  • Unknown
    • Snowmaking would require a substantial amount of water. Making snow from seawater would require a desalination procedure, which can be energy intensive.
    • A study looking at snow addition onto ice sheets noted that such a procedure would require a significant amount of energy and infrastructure to make the snow (Feldmann et al. 2019).
    • Current snowmaking practices in ski resorts require 3.5-4.3 kWh electricity per m³ (Energi & Kylanalys 2011). 1 square mile of area with 1 m snow would require 2,500,000 m³ of snow and is estimated to require 2.5 GWh (Moseman 2022).

Impact on

Albedo
  • Increases of 0.27-0.35
Temperature (Arctic region and global)
  • Global
    • Unknown
      • Likely small global impact
  • Arctic region
    • Unknown
      • Possible regional impact
Radiation budget
  • Global
    • Unknown
      • Likely small global impact
  • Arctic region
    • Unknown
      • Possible regional impact
Sea ice
  • Direct or indirect impact on sea ice?
    • Directly applied to sea ice
  • New or old ice?
    • Both
  • Impact on sea ice
    • Increasing snow volume increases sea ice volume in spring and summer months (Holland et al. 2021). Snow can slow ice growth during winter.

Scalability

Spatial scalability
  • Unknown
Efficiency
  • Unknown
Timeline to scalability
  • Unknown
    • Adding snow to sea ice could be logistically challenging in places
Timeline to global impact (has to be within 20 yr)
  • Unknown
Timeline to Arctic region impact (has to be within 20 yr)
  • Unknown

Cost

Economic cost
  • Unknown
CO2 footprint
  • Unknown
    • Snowmaking would require a substantial amount of water. Making snow from seawater would require a desalination procedure, which can be energy intensive.
    • A study looking at snow addition onto ice sheets noted that such a procedure would require a significant amount of energy and infrastructure to make the snow (Feldmann et al. 2019).
    • Current snowmaking practices in ski resorts require 3.5-4.3 kWh electricity per m3 (Energi & Kylanalys 2011). 1 square mile of area with 1 m snow would require 2,500,000 m3 of snow and is estimated to require 2.5 GWh (Moseman 2022).

Impact on

Albedo
  • Increases of 0.27-0.35
Temperature (Arctic region and global)
  • Global
    • Unknown
      • Likely small global impact
  • Arctic region
    • Unknown
      • Possible regional impact
Radiation budget
  • Global
    • Unknown
      • Likely small global impact
  • Arctic region
    • Unknown
      • Possible regional impact
Sea ice
  • Direct or indirect impact on sea ice?
    • Directly applied to sea ice
  • New or old ice?
    • Both
Impact on sea ice
  • Increasing snow volume increases sea ice volume in spring and summer months (Holland et al. 2021). Snow can slow ice growth during winter.

Scalability

Spatial scalability
  • Unknown
Efficiency
  • Unknown
Timeline to scalability
  • Unknown
    • Adding snow to sea ice could be logistically challenging in places
Timeline to global impact (has to be within 20 yr)
  • Unknown
Timeline to Arctic region impact (has to be within 20 yr)
  • Unknown

Cost

Economic cost
  • Unknown
CO2 footprint
  • Unknown
    • Snowmaking would require a substantial amount of water. Making snow from seawater would require a desalination procedure, which can be energy intensive.
    • A study looking at snow addition onto ice sheets noted that such a procedure would require a significant amount of energy and infrastructure to make the snow (Feldmann et al. 2019).
    • Current snowmaking practices in ski resorts require 3.5-4.3 kWh electricity per m3 (Energi & Kylanalys 2011). 1 square mile of area with 1 m snow would require 2,500,000 m3 of snow and is estimated to require 2.5 GWh (Moseman 2022).

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Technology readiness
Version published: 
September 13, 2024 - 4:00pm
September 13, 2024 - 4:00pm September 12, 2024 - 6:54pm September 9, 2024 - 5:52pm September 5, 2024 - 5:08am August 28, 2024 - 3:18am

TRL

  • 4 – Technology exists for making snow, but this would need to be applied to a new marine environment. Modeling studies have been done to look into this action.
  • Summary of existing literature and studies:
    • Snow addition already occurs commercially (ski resorts) but not used for application on sea ice. See resources about snowmaking and climate risks from the National Ski Areas Association.
    • Modeling study conducted about increasing snow volume across the Arctic (Holland et al. 2021).
    • Modeling study about adding snow to ice sheets in Antarctica (Feldmann et al. 2019).
    • Research by Real Ice planned to explore impact of adding snow after ice thickening.

Technical feasibility within 10 yrs

  • Possible
    • Snowmaking technology exists but needs to be adapted for a sea ice environment.
TRL
  • 4 – Technology exists for making snow, but this would need to be applied to a new marine environment. Modeling studies have been done to look into this action.
  • Summary of existing literature and studies:
    • Snow addition already occurs commercially (ski resorts) but not used for application on sea ice. See resources about snowmaking and climate risks from the National Ski Areas Association.
    • Modeling study conducted about increasing snow volume across the Arctic (Holland et al. 2021).
    • Modeling study about adding snow to ice sheets in Antarctica (Feldmann et al. 2019).
    • Research by Real Ice planned to explore impact of adding snow after ice thickening.
Technical feasibility within 10 yrs
  • Possible
    • Snowmaking technology exists but needs to be adapted for a sea ice environment.
TRL
  • 4 – Technology exists for making snow, but this would need to be applied to a new marine environment. Modeling studies have been done to look into this action.
  • Summary of existing literature and studies:
    • Snow addition already occurs commercially (ski resorts) but not used for application on sea ice. See resources about snowmaking and climate risks from the National Ski Areas Association.
    • Modeling study conducted about increasing snow volume across the Arctic (Holland et al. 2021)
    • Modeling study about adding snow to ice sheets in Antarctica (Feldmann et al. 2019)
    • Research by Real Ice planned to explore impact of adding snow after ice thickening
Technical feasibility within 10 yrs
  • Possible
    • Snowmaking technology exists but needs to be adapted for a sea ice environment
TRL
    • 4 – Technology exists for making snow, but this would need to be applied to a new marine environment. Modeling studies have been done to look into this action.
    • Summary of existing literature and studies:
      • Snow addition already occurs commercially (ski resorts) but not used for application on sea ice. See resources about snowmaking and climate risks from the National Ski Areas Association.
      • Modeling study conducted about increasing snow volume across the Arctic (Holland et al. 2021)
      • Modeling study about adding snow to ice sheets in Antarctica (Feldmann et al. 2019)
      • Research by Real Ice planned to explore impact of adding snow after ice thickening
Technical feasibility within 10 yrs
    • Possible
      • Snowmaking technology exists but needs to be adapted for a sea ice environment
  • TRL
    • 4 – Technology exists for making snow, but this would need to be applied to a new marine environment. Modeling studies have been done to look into this action.
    • Summary of existing literature and studies:
      • Snow addition already occurs commercially (ski resorts) but not used for application on sea ice. See resources about snowmaking and climate risks from the National Ski Areas Association.
      • Modeling study conducted about increasing snow volume across the Arctic (Holland et al. 2021)
      • Modeling study about adding snow to ice sheets in Antarctica (Feldmann et al. 2019)
      • Research by Real Ice planned to explore impact of adding snow after ice thickening
  • Technical feasibility within 10 yrs
    • Possible
      • Snowmaking technology exists but needs to be adapted for a sea ice environment

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Socio-ecological co-benefits and risks
Version published: 
September 10, 2024 - 12:51am
September 10, 2024 - 12:51am September 9, 2024 - 6:15pm September 9, 2024 - 5:41pm September 9, 2024 - 1:57pm September 5, 2024 - 9:05pm September 5, 2024 - 5:10am August 28, 2024 - 3:18am

Missing information in this section does not indicate the absence of risks or co-benefits; it simply reflects that sufficient information is not yet available.

Physical and chemical changes

  • Co-benefits
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause the ice to flood. Under cold conditions, that seawater-flooded snow refreezes, with similar results to ice thickening approaches (Sturm and Masson 2016).
  • Risks
    • Increased snow on permafrost in the Arctic has accelerated permafrost thawing and increased carbon emissions (Pedron et al. 2023).
    • Blowing snow events, where airborne snow and wind speed pass a threshold, in the Arctic lead to sea salt aerosols in the atmosphere that can have a warming effect during winter and spring (Gong et al. 2023).
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause the ice to flood, reducing albedo. Under warm conditions, such flooding would speed ice melt (Sturm and Masson 2016).

Impacts on species

  • Co-benefits
    • Ringed seals use ice to rest, whelp, and nurse young in snow caves. As the Arctic warms, they are becoming more vulnerable to predators in the water and on sea ice as the availability of these resources decreases (Kelly 2022). Adding snow may help maintain these components of their environment.
  • Risks
    • Unknown

Impacts on ecosystems

  • Co-benefits
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause the ice to flood. Under cold conditions, that seawater-flooded snow refreezes, with similar results to ice thickening approaches (Sturm and Masson 2016). This may benefit sea ice ecosystems.
  • Risks
    • Some chemicals used in snowmaking contain seeding bacterial and chemical compounds that could have unknown effects in varying environments (Dingle 2018). However, snow can be made without additional compounds, but snow-making efficiency is lower.
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause the ice to flood, reducing albedo. Under warm conditions, such flooding would speed ice melt (Sturm and Masson 2016), with negative ramifications for sea ice ecosystems.

Impacts on society

  • Co-benefits
    • Unknown
  • Risks
    • Unknown

Ease of reversibility

  • Easy
    • It would be relatively easy to cease snowmaking operations.

Risk of termination shock

  • Medium
    • For application to sea ice, sea ice would return to levels of albedo and thicknesses for that without snow and return to associated levels of melt.
Missing information in this section does not indicate the absence of risks or co-benefits; it simply reflects that sufficient information is not yet available.

Physical and chemical changes

  • Co-benefits
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause the ice to flood. Under cold conditions, that seawater-flooded snow refreezes, with similar results to ice thickening approaches (Sturm and Masson 2016).
  • Risks
    • Increased snow on permafrost in the Arctic has accelerated permafrost thawing and increased carbon emissions (Pedron et al. 2023).
    • Blowing snow events, where airborne snow and wind speed pass a threshold, in the Arctic lead to sea salt aerosols in the atmosphere that can have a warming effect during winter and spring (Gong et al. 2023).
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause the ice to flood, reducing albedo. Under warm conditions, such flooding would speed ice melt (Sturm and Masson 2016).

Impacts on species

  • Co-benefits
    • Ringed seals use ice to rest, whelp, and nurse young in snow caves. As the Arctic warms, they are becoming more vulnerable to predators in the water and on sea ice as the availability of these resources decreases (Kelly 2022). Adding snow may help maintain these components of their environment.
  • Risks
    • Unknown

Impacts on ecosystems

  • Co-benefits
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause the ice to flood. Under cold conditions, that seawater-flooded snow refreezes, with similar results to ice thickening approaches (Sturm and Masson 2016). This may benefit sea ice ecosystems.
  • Risks
    • Some chemicals used in snowmaking contain seeding bacterial and chemical compounds that could have unknown effects in varying environments (Dingle 2018). However, snow can be made without additional compounds, but snow-making efficiency is lower.
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause the ice to flood, reducing albedo. Under warm conditions, such flooding would speed ice melt (Sturm and Masson 2016), with negative ramifications for sea ice ecosystems.

Impacts on society

  • Co-benefits
    • Unknown
  • Risks
    • Unknown

Ease of reversibility

  • Easy
    • It would be relatively easy to cease snowmaking operations.

Risk of termination shock

  • Medium
    • For application to sea ice, sea ice would return to levels of albedo and thicknesses for that without snow and return to associated levels of melt.
Missing information in this section does not indicate the absence of risks or co-benefits; it simply reflects that sufficient information is not yet available.

Physical and chemical changes

  • Co-benefits
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause the ice to flood. Under cold conditions, that seawater-flooded snow refreezes, with similar results to ice thickening approaches (Sturm and Masson 2016).
  • Risks
    • Increased snow on permafrost in the Arctic has accelerated permafrost thawing and increased carbon emissions (Pedron et al. 2023).
    • Blowing snow events, where airborne snow and wind speed pass a threshold, in the Arctic lead to sea salt aerosols in the atmosphere that can have a warming effect during winter and spring (Gong et al. 2023).
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause the ice to flood, reducing albedo. Under warm conditions, such flooding would speed ice melt (Sturm and Masson 2016).

Impacts on species

  • Co-benefits
    • Ringed seals use ice to rest, whelp, and nurse young in snow caves. As the Arctic warms, they are becoming more vulnerable to predators in the water and on sea ice as the availability of these resources decreases (Kelly 2022). Adding snow may help maintain these components of their environment.
  • Risks
    • Unknown

Impacts on ecosystems

  • Co-benefits
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause the ice to flood. Under cold conditions, that seawater-flooded snow refreezes, with similar results to ice thickening approaches (Sturm and Masson 2016). This may benefit sea ice ecosystems.
  • Risks
    • Some chemicals used in snowmaking contain seeding bacterial and chemical compounds that could have unknown effects in varying environments (Dingle 2018). However, snow can be made without additional compounds, but snow-making efficiency is lower.
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause the ice to flood, reducing albedo. Under warm conditions, such flooding would speed ice melt (Sturm and Masson 2016), with negative ramifications for sea ice ecosystems.

Impacts on society

  • Co-benefits
    • Unknown
  • Risks
    • Unknown

Ease of reversibility

  • It would be relatively easy to cease snowmaking operations.

Risk of termination shock

  • For application to sea ice, sea ice would return to levels of albedo and thicknesses for that without snow and return to associated levels of melt.
Missing information in this section does not indicate the absence of risks or co-benefits; it simply reflects that sufficient information is not yet available. Physical and chemical changes
  • Co-benefits
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause the ice to flood. Under cold conditions, that seawater-flooded snow refreezes, with similar results to ice thickening approaches (Sturm and Masson 2016).
  • Risks
    • Increased snow on permafrost in the Arctic has accelerated permafrost thawing and increased carbon emissions (Pedron et al. 2023).
    • Blowing snow events, where airborne snow and wind speed pass a threshold, in the Arctic lead to sea salt aerosols in the atmosphere that can have a warming effect during winter and spring (Gong et al. 2023).
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause the ice to flood, reducing albedo. Under warm conditions, such flooding would speed ice melt (Sturm and Masson 2016).
Impacts on species
  • Co-benefits
    • Ringed seals use ice to rest, whelp, and nurse young in snow caves. As the Arctic warms, they are becoming more vulnerable to predators in the water and on sea ice as the availability of these resources decreases (Kelly 2022). Adding snow may help maintain these components of their environment.
  • Risks
    • Unknown
Impacts on ecosystems
  • Co-benefits
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause the ice to flood. Under cold conditions, that seawater-flooded snow refreezes, with similar results to ice thickening approaches (Sturm and Masson 2016). This may benefit sea ice ecosystems.
  • Risks
    • Some chemicals used in snowmaking contain seeding bacterial and chemical compounds that could have unknown effects in varying environments (Dingle 2018). However, snow can be made without additional compounds, but snow-making efficiency is lower.
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause the ice to flood, reducing albedo. Under warm conditions, such flooding would speed ice melt (Sturm and Masson 2016), with negative ramifications for sea ice ecosystems.
Impacts on society
  • Co-benefits
    • Unknown
  • Risks
    • Unknown
Ease of reversibility
  • It would be relatively easy to cease snowmaking operations.
Risk of termination shock
  • For application to sea ice, sea ice would return to levels of albedo and thicknesses for that without snow and return to associated levels of melt.
Missing information in this section does not indicate the absence of risks or co-benefits; it simply reflects that sufficient information is not yet available. Physical and chemical changes
  • Co-benefits
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause the ice to flood. Under cold conditions, that seawater-flooded snow refreezes, with similar results to ice thickening approaches (Sturm and Masson 2016).
  • Risks
    • Increased snow on permafrost in the Arctic has accelerated permafrost thawing and increased carbon emissions (Pedron et al. 2023).
    • Blowing snow events, where airborne snow and wind speed pass a threshold, in the Arctic lead to sea salt aerosols in the atmosphere that can have a warming effect during winter and spring (Gong et al. 2023)
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause the ice to flood, reducing albedo. Under warm conditions, such flooding would speed ice melt (Sturm and Masson 2016).
Impacts on species
  • Co-benefits
    • Ringed seals use ice to rest, whelp, and nurse young in snow caves. As the Arctic warms, they are becoming more vulnerable to predators in the water and on sea ice as the availability of these resources decreases (Kelly 2022). Adding snow may help maintain these components of their environment.
  • Risks
    • Unknown
Impacts on ecosystems
  • Co-benefits
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause the ice to flood. Under cold conditions, that seawater-flooded snow refreezes, with similar results to ice thickening approaches (Sturm and Masson 2016). This may benefit sea ice ecosystems.
  • Risks
    • Some chemicals used in snowmaking contain seeding bacterial and chemical compounds that could have unknown effects in varying environments (Dingle 2018). However, snow can be made without additional compounds, but snow-making efficiency is lower.
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause the ice to flood, reducing albedo. Under warm conditions, such flooding would speed ice melt (Sturm and Masson 2016), with negative ramifications for sea ice ecosystems.
Impacts on society
  • Co-benefits
    • Unknown
  • Risks
    • Unknown
Ease of reversibility
  • It would be relatively easy to cease snowmaking operations.
Risk of termination shock
  • For application to sea ice, sea ice would return to levels of albedo and thicknesses for that without snow and return to associated levels of melt.
Missing information in this section does not indicate the absence of risks or co-benefits; it simply reflects that sufficient information is not yet available. Physical and chemical changes
  • Co-benefits
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause the ice to flood. Under cold conditions, that seawater-flooded snow refreezes, with similar results to ice thickening approaches (Sturm and Masson 2016).
  • Risks
    • Increased snow on permafrost in the Arctic has accelerated permafrost thawing and increased carbon emissions (Pedron et al. 2023).
    • Blowing snow events, where airborne snow and wind speed pass a threshold, in the Arctic lead to sea salt aerosols in the atmosphere that can have a warming effect during winter and spring (Gong et al. 2023)
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause the ice to flood, reducing albedo. Under warm conditions, such flooding would speed ice melt (Sturm and Masson 2016).
Impacts on species
  • Co-benefits
    • Ringed seals use ice to rest, whelp, and nurse young in snow caves. As the Arctic warms, they are becoming more vulnerable to predators in the water and on sea ice as the availability of these resources decreases. (Kelly 2022). Adding snow may help maintain these components of their environment.
  • Risks
    • Unknown
Impacts on ecosystems
  • Co-benefits
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause the ice to flood. Under cold conditions, that seawater-flooded snow refreezes, with similar results to ice thickening approaches (Sturm and Masson 2016). This may benefit sea ice ecosystems.
  • Risks
    • Some chemicals used in snowmaking contain seeding bacterial and chemical compounds that could have unknown effects in varying environments (Dingle 2018). However, snow can be made without additional compounds, but snow-making efficiency is lower.
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause the ice to flood, reducing albedo. Under warm conditions, such flooding would speed ice melt (Sturm and Masson 2016), with negative ramifications for sea ice ecosystems.
Impacts on society
  • Co-benefits
    • Unknown
  • Risks
    • Unknown
Ease of reversibility
  • It would be relatively easy to cease snowmaking operations.
Risk of termination shock
  • For application to sea ice, sea ice would return to levels of albedo and thicknesses for that without snow and return to associated levels of melt.
Missing information in this section does not indicate the absence of risks or co-benefits; it simply reflects that sufficient information is not yet available. Physical and chemical changes
  • Co-benefits
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause it the ice to flood. Under cold conditions, that seawater-flooded snow refreezes, with similar results to ice thickening approaches (Sturm and Masson 2016).
  • Risks
    • Increased snow on permafrost in the Arctic has accelerated permafrost thawing and increased carbon emissions (Pedron et al. 2023).
    • Blowing snow events, where airborne snow and wind speed pass a threshold, in the Arctic lead to sea salt aerosols in the atmosphere that can have a warming effect during winter and spring (Gong et al. 2023)
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause it to flood, reducing albedo. Under warm conditions, such flooding would speed ice melt (Sturm and Masson 2016).
Impacts on species
  • Co-benefits
    • Ringed seals use ice to rest, whelp, and nurse young in snow caves. As the Arctic warms, they are becoming more vulnerable to predators in the water and on sea ice as the availability of these resources decreases. (Kelly 2022). Adding snow may help maintain these components of their environment.
  • Risks
    • Unknown
Impacts on ecosystems
  • Co-benefits
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause it the ice to flood. Under cold conditions, that seawater-flooded snow refreezes, with similar results to ice thickening approaches (Sturm and Masson 2016). This may benefit sea ice ecosystems.
  • Risks
    • Some chemicals used in snowmaking contain seeding bacterial and chemical compounds that could have unknown effects in varying environments (Dingle 2018). However, snow can be made without additional compounds, but snow-making efficiency is lower.
    • Adding snow to thin ice can push the ice below the surface of the water and cause it to flood, reducing albedo. Under warm conditions, such flooding would speed ice melt (Sturm and Masson 2016), with negative ramifications for sea ice ecosystems.
Impacts on society
  • Co-benefits
    • Unknown
  • Risks
    • Unknown
Ease of reversibility
  • It would be relatively easy to cease snowmaking operations.
Risk of termination shock
  • For application to sea ice, sea ice would return to levels of albedo and thicknesses for that without snow and return to associated levels of melt.

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Governance considerations
Version published: 
September 9, 2024 - 7:06pm
September 9, 2024 - 7:06pm September 6, 2024 - 10:03pm September 5, 2024 - 7:21pm September 5, 2024 - 7:04pm September 5, 2024 - 5:13am August 28, 2024 - 3:18am

International vs national jurisdiction

  • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
    • For all Ice Management approaches, research and testing could be done within national jurisdiction (territorial seas or Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs); note that different legal rules apply to territorial seas and EEZs). Scalability may require deployment to additional areas within international waters.  See “Existing governance” for other available information on relevant governance structures.
  • Specific to Adding Snow:
    • Mostly national
      • For sea ice, research and testing could be done within national jurisdiction, but scalability may require deployment to additional areas within international waters in the Arctic Ocean. For glaciers and ice sheets, this technique would be deployed within national jurisdiction.

Existing governance

  • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
    • The Arctic Ocean is governed by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which includes all Arctic coastal states except the United States. The United States, however, is bound to customary law “including customs codified or that have emerged from UNCLOS” (Argüello and Johansson 2022).
      • UNCLOS and marine scientific research (MSR):
        • MSR is governed by Part XIII of UNCLOS. In general, the right of states to conduct MSR is subject to the rights and duties of other states under UNCLOS (UNCLOS Article 238). There is a duty on parties to promote and facilitate MSR (UNCLOS Article 239).
        • MSR shall be conducted exclusively for peaceful purposes, it may not unjustifiably interfere with other legitimate uses of the sea, and it must be conducted in compliance with all relevant regulations adopted in conformity with the Convention, including those for the protection and preservation of the marine environment (UNCLOS Article 240).
        • States are responsible and liable for damage caused by pollution of the marine environment arising out of MSR undertaken by them or on their behalf (UNCLOS Article 263(3)).
          • Any approaches that involve adding material or energy to the ocean that would cause or be likely to cause damage to the marine environment would constitute “pollution of the marine environment” within the meaning of Article 1(1)(4) of UNCLOS, and States would have a duty to minimize the pollution pursuant to Article 194.
        • National Jurisdiction and MSR under UNCLOS
          • In a coastal state’s territorial sea (12 nautical miles from shore baseline), the coastal state has the exclusive right to regulate, authorize, and conduct MSR.
          • In a coastal state’s EEZ (200 nautical miles from shore baseline), coastal states also have the right to regulate, authorize, and conduct MSR, and MSR by other states requires the consent of the coastal state (UNCLOS Article 246(2)). States ordinarily give their consent, and they are required to adopt rules to ensure that consent is not delayed or denied unreasonably. UNCLOS further specifies grounds for refusing consent, including if the MSR involves introducing harmful substances into the marine environment (UNCLOS Article 246(5)(b)).
        • Areas outside National Jurisdiction and MSR under UNCLOS
          • On the high seas, UNCLOS provides for freedom of MSR (UNCLOS Article 87(1)(f)), but it must be done with due regard for the interests of other States in their exercise of the freedom of the high seas (Articles 87(2)).
          • The high seas are reserved for peaceful purposes (Article 88) and no state may subject a portion of high seas to its sovereignty (Article 89).
        • The 2017 Agreement on Enhancing Arctic Scientific Cooperation is relevant. This is a legally binding agreement signed in 2017 by all Arctic States negotiated in the Arctic Council. It promotes international cooperation and favorable conditions for conducting scientific research, facilitates access to research areas, infrastructure, and facilities, and promotes education and training of scientists in Arctic issues. The agreement also encourages participants to utilize traditional and local knowledge as appropriate as well as encourages communication between traditional and local knowledge holders and participants. This may provide a framework for consultation with stakeholders including Indigenous peoples in intervention research, planning, and testing (Chuffart et al. 2023).
        • The Arctic Council has been called upon as a venue for providing oversight on approaches to slow the loss of Arctic sea ice, or to establish working groups to provide guidance (Bodansky and Hunt 2020, Bennett et al. 2022). If the objective of the approach is to slow the loss of Arctic sea ice, rather than altering global temperatures, the Arctic parties have the primary interest (Bodansky and Hunt 2020). However, the current geopolitical landscape and lack of participation from Russia makes consensus difficult.
        • See Argüello and Johansson (2022) for further details of governance related to ice management.
      • Specific to Adding Snow:
        • Unknown
          • Most snowmaking activities are occurring on private land at ski resorts.

Justice

  • Here we define justice related to approaches to slow the loss of Arctic sea ice through distributive justice, procedural justice, and restorative justice. Following COMEST (2023), we consider questions of ethics through a justice lens. Note that this is not an exhaustive list of justice dimensions and as the field advances, so will the related considerations and dimensions.
  • Distributive justice
    • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
      • If distributive justice is considered, the objective would be that benefits and costs of research or potential deployment of the approach be distributed fairly while protecting the basic rights of the most vulnerable.
    • Specific to Adding Snow:
      • No additional information.
  • Procedural justice
    • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
      • If procedural justice is considered, people affected by research would have an opportunity to participate and have a say in how the approach will be researched, deployed, and governed.
      • Bennett et al. (2022) suggests an inclusive governance approach that incorporates stakeholder concerns in the design and deployment of approaches and effectively communicates risk. Within the development of such a framework there is an opportunity to prioritize Indigenous self-determination and procedural justice (Chuffart et al. 2023). Note, however, that stakeholders may also include non-local people.
    • Specific to Adding Snow:
      • No additional information.
  • Restorative justice
    • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
      • If restorative justice is considered, plans would be developed for those who could be harmed by the approach to be compensated, rehabilitated, or restored.
    • Specific to Adding Snow:
      • No additional information.

Public engagement and perception

  • Unknown for Arctic sea ice application
    • Public support has improved over time for application to ski areas (Pütz et al. 2011).

Engagement with Indigenous communities

  • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
    • The principle of free, prior, and informed consent (FPIC) in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) is the foundation for engagement with Indigenous Peoples.
    • Particular to any potential Arctic research or deployment, The Inuit Circumpolar Council (2022) has published Circumpolar Inuit Protocols for Equitable and Ethical Engagement, which include eight protocols:
      • ‘Nothing About Us Without Us’ – Always Engage with Inuit
      • Recognize Indigenous Knowledge in its Own Right
      • Practice Good Governance
      • Communication with Intent
      • Exercising Accountability – Building Trust
      • Building Meaningful Partnerships
      • Information, Data Sharing, Ownership, and Permissions
      • Equitably Fund Inuit Representation and Knowledge
    • Any meaningful engagement with Indigenous peoples needs to consider context. Whyte (2018) states, “Indigenous voices should be involved in scientific and policy discussions of different types of geoengineering. But, context matters. Geoengineering discourses cannot just be associated with geoengineering to the exclusion of topics and solutions that Indigenous peoples value.”
  • Specific to Adding Snow:
    • Unknown
International vs national jurisdiction
  • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
    • For all Ice Management approaches, research and testing could be done within national jurisdiction (territorial seas or Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs); note that different legal rules apply to territorial seas and EEZs). Scalability may require deployment to additional areas within international waters.  See “Existing governance” for other available information on relevant governance structures.
  • Specific to Adding Snow:
    • Mostly national
      • For sea ice, research and testing could be done within national jurisdiction, but scalability may require deployment to additional areas within international waters in the Arctic Ocean. For glaciers and ice sheets, this technique would be deployed within national jurisdiction.
Existing governance
  • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
    • The Arctic Ocean is governed by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which includes all Arctic coastal states except the United States. The United States, however, is bound to customary law “including customs codified or that have emerged from UNCLOS” (Argüello and Johansson 2022).
      • UNCLOS and marine scientific research (MSR):
        • MSR is governed by Part XIII of UNCLOS. In general, the right of states to conduct MSR is subject to the rights and duties of other states under UNCLOS (UNCLOS Article 238). There is a duty on parties to promote and facilitate MSR (UNCLOS Article 239).
        • MSR shall be conducted exclusively for peaceful purposes, it may not unjustifiably interfere with other legitimate uses of the sea, and it must be conducted in compliance with all relevant regulations adopted in conformity with the Convention, including those for the protection and preservation of the marine environment (UNCLOS Article 240).
        • States are responsible and liable for damage caused by pollution of the marine environment arising out of MSR undertaken by them or on their behalf (UNCLOS Article 263(3)).
          • Any approaches that involve adding material or energy to the ocean that would cause or be likely to cause damage to the marine environment would constitute “pollution of the marine environment” within the meaning of Article 1(1)(4) of UNCLOS, and States would have a duty to minimize the pollution pursuant to Article 194.
        • National Jurisdiction and MSR under UNCLOS
          • In a coastal state’s territorial sea (12 nautical miles from shore baseline), the coastal state has the exclusive right to regulate, authorize, and conduct MSR.
          • In a coastal state’s EEZ (200 nautical miles from shore baseline), coastal states also have the right to regulate, authorize, and conduct MSR, and MSR by other states requires the consent of the coastal state (UNCLOS Article 246(2)). States ordinarily give their consent, and they are required to adopt rules to ensure that consent is not delayed or denied unreasonably. UNCLOS further specifies grounds for refusing consent, including if the MSR involves introducing harmful substances into the marine environment (UNCLOS Article 246(5)(b)).
        • Areas outside National Jurisdiction and MSR under UNCLOS
          • On the high seas, UNCLOS provides for freedom of MSR (UNCLOS Article 87(1)(f)), but it must be done with due regard for the interests of other States in their exercise of the freedom of the high seas (Articles 87(2)).
          • The high seas are reserved for peaceful purposes (Article 88) and no state may subject a portion of high seas to its sovereignty (Article 89).
        • The 2017 Agreement on Enhancing Arctic Scientific Cooperation is relevant. This is a legally binding agreement signed in 2017 by all Arctic States negotiated in the Arctic Council. It promotes international cooperation and favorable conditions for conducting scientific research, facilitates access to research areas, infrastructure, and facilities, and promotes education and training of scientists in Arctic issues. The agreement also encourages participants to utilize traditional and local knowledge as appropriate as well as encourages communication between traditional and local knowledge holders and participants. This may provide a framework for consultation with stakeholders including Indigenous peoples in intervention research, planning, and testing (Chuffart et al. 2023).
        • The Arctic Council has been called upon as a venue for providing oversight on approaches to slow the loss of Arctic sea ice, or to establish working groups to provide guidance (Bodansky and Hunt 2020, Bennett et al. 2022). If the objective of the approach is to slow the loss of Arctic sea ice, rather than altering global temperatures, the Arctic parties have the primary interest (Bodansky and Hunt 2020). However, the current geopolitical landscape and lack of participation from Russia makes consensus difficult.
        • See Argüello and Johansson (2022) for further details of governance related to ice management.
      • Specific to Adding Snow:
        • Unknown
          • Most snowmaking activities are occurring on private land at ski resorts.
Justice
  • Here we define justice related to approaches to slow the loss of Arctic sea ice through distributive justice, procedural justice, and restorative justice. Following COMEST (2023), we consider questions of ethics through a justice lens. Note that this is not an exhaustive list of justice dimensions and as the field advances, so will the related considerations and dimensions.
  • Distributive justice
    • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
      • If distributive justice is considered, the objective would be that benefits and costs of research or potential deployment of the approach be distributed fairly while protecting the basic rights of the most vulnerable.
    • Specific to Adding Snow:
      • No additional information.
  • Procedural justice
    • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
      • If procedural justice is considered, people affected by research would have an opportunity to participate and have a say in how the approach will be researched, deployed, and governed.
      • Bennett et al. (2022) suggests an inclusive governance approach that incorporates stakeholder concerns in the design and deployment of approaches and effectively communicates risk. Within the development of such a framework there is an opportunity to prioritize Indigenous self-determination and procedural justice (Chuffart et al. 2023). Note, however, that stakeholders may also include non-local people.
    • Specific to Adding Snow:
      • No additional information.
  • Restorative justice
    • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
      • If restorative justice is considered, plans would be developed for those who could be harmed by the approach to be compensated, rehabilitated, or restored.
    • Specific to Adding Snow:
      • No additional information.
Public engagement and perception
  • Unknown for Arctic sea ice application
    • Public support has improved over time for application to ski areas (Pütz et al. 2011).
Engagement with Indigenous communities
  • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
    • The principle of free, prior, and informed consent (FPIC) in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) is the foundation for engagement with Indigenous Peoples.
    • Particular to any potential Arctic research or deployment, The Inuit Circumpolar Council (2022) has published Circumpolar Inuit Protocols for Equitable and Ethical Engagement, which include eight protocols:
      • ‘Nothing About Us Without Us’ – Always Engage with Inuit
      • Recognize Indigenous Knowledge in its Own Right
      • Practice Good Governance
      • Communication with Intent
      • Exercising Accountability – Building Trust
      • Building Meaningful Partnerships
      • Information, Data Sharing, Ownership, and Permissions
      • Equitably Fund Inuit Representation and Knowledge
    • Any meaningful engagement with Indigenous peoples needs to consider context. Whyte (2018) states, “Indigenous voices should be involved in scientific and policy discussions of different types of geoengineering. But, context matters. Geoengineering discourses cannot just be associated with geoengineering to the exclusion of topics and solutions that Indigenous peoples value.”
  • Specific to Adding Snow:
    • Unknown
International vs national jurisdiction
  • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
    • For all Ice Management approaches, research and testing could be done within national jurisdiction (territorial seas or Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs); note that different legal rules apply to territorial seas and EEZs). Scalability may require deployment to additional areas within international waters.  See “Existing governance” for other available information on relevant governance structures.
  • Specific to Adding Snow:
    • Mostly national
      • For sea ice, research and testing could be done within national jurisdiction, but scalability may require deployment to additional areas within international waters in the Arctic Ocean. For glaciers and ice sheets, this technique would be deployed within national jurisdiction.
Existing governance
  • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
    • The Arctic Ocean is governed by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which includes all Arctic coastal states except the United States. The United States, however, is bound to customary law “including customs codified or that have emerged from UNCLOS” (Argüello and Johansson 2022).
      • UNCLOS and marine scientific research (MSR):
        • MSR is governed by Part XIII of UNCLOS. In general, the right of states to conduct MSR is subject to the rights and duties of other states under UNCLOS (UNCLOS Article 238). There is a duty on parties to promote and facilitate MSR (UNCLOS Article 239).
        • MSR shall be conducted exclusively for peaceful purposes, it may not unjustifiably interfere with other legitimate uses of the sea, and it must be conducted in compliance with all relevant regulations adopted in conformity with the Convention, including those for the protection and preservation of the marine environment (UNCLOS Article 240).
        • States are responsible and liable for damage caused by pollution of the marine environment arising out of MSR undertaken by them or on their behalf (UNCLOS Article 263(3)).
          • Any approaches that involve adding material or energy to the ocean that would cause or be likely to cause damage to the marine environment would constitute “pollution of the marine environment” within the meaning of Article 1(1)(4) of UNCLOS, and States would have a duty to minimize the pollution pursuant to Article 194.
        • National Jurisdiction and MSR under UNCLOS
          • In a coastal state’s territorial sea (12 nautical miles from shore baseline), the coastal state has the exclusive right to regulate, authorize, and conduct MSR.
          • In a coastal state’s EEZ (200 nautical miles from shore baseline), coastal states also have the right to regulate, authorize, and conduct MSR, and MSR by other states requires the consent of the coastal state (UNCLOS Article 246(2)). States ordinarily give their consent, and they are required to adopt rules to ensure that consent is not delayed or denied unreasonably. UNCLOS further specifies grounds for refusing consent, including if the MSR involves introducing harmful substances into the marine environment (UNCLOS Article 246(5)(b)).
        • Areas outside National Jurisdiction and MSR under UNCLOS
          • On the high seas, UNCLOS provides for freedom of MSR (UNCLOS Article 87(1)(f)), but it must be done with due regard for the interests of other States in their exercise of the freedom of the high seas (Articles 87(2)).
          • The high seas are reserved for peaceful purposes (Article 88) and no state may subject a portion of high seas to its sovereignty (Article 89).
        • The 2017 Agreement on Enhancing Arctic Scientific Cooperation is relevant. This is a legally binding agreement signed in 2017 by all Arctic States negotiated in the Arctic Council. It promotes international cooperation and favorable conditions for conducting scientific research, facilitates access to research areas, infrastructure, and facilities, and promotes education and training of scientists in Arctic issues. The agreement also encourages participants to utilize traditional and local knowledge as appropriate as well as encourages communication between traditional and local knowledge holders and participants. This may provide a framework for consultation with stakeholders including Indigenous peoples in intervention research, planning, and testing (Chuffart et al. 2023).
        • The Arctic Council has been called upon as a venue for providing oversight on approaches to slow the loss of Arctic sea ice, or to establish working groups to provide guidance (Bodansky and Hunt 2020, Bennett et al. 2022). If the objective of the approach is to slow the loss of Arctic sea ice, rather than altering global temperatures, the Arctic parties have the primary interest (Bodansky and Hunt 2020). However, the current geopolitical landscape and lack of participation from Russia makes consensus difficult.
        • See Argüello and Johansson (2022) for further details of governance related to ice management.
      • Specific to Adding Snow:
        • Unknown
          • Most snowmaking activities are occurring on private land at ski resorts.
Justice
  • Here we define justice related to approaches to slow the loss of Arctic sea ice through distributive justice, procedural justice, and restorative justice. Following COMEST (2023), we consider questions of ethics through a justice lens. Note that this is not an exhaustive list of justice dimensions and as the field advances, so will the related considerations and dimensions.
  • Distributive justice
    • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
      • If distributive justice is considered, the objective would be that benefits and costs of research or potential deployment of the approach be distributed fairly while protecting the basic rights of the most vulnerable.
    • Specific to Adding Snow:
      • No additional information.
  • Procedural justice
    • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
      • If procedural justice is considered, people affected by research would have an opportunity to participate and have a say in how the approach will be researched, deployed, and governed.
      • Bennett et al. (2022) suggests an inclusive governance approach that incorporates stakeholder concerns in the design and deployment of approaches and effectively communicates risk. Within the development of such a framework there is an opportunity to prioritize Indigenous self-determination and procedural justice (Chuffart et al. 2023). Note, however, that stakeholders may also include non-local people.
    • Specific to Adding Snow:
      • No additional information.
  • Restorative justice
    • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
      • If restorative justice is considered, plans would be developed for those who could be harmed by the approach to be compensated, rehabilitated, or restored.
    • Specific to Adding Snow:
      • No additional information.
Public engagement and perception
  • Unknown for Arctic sea ice application
    • Public support has improved over time for application to ski areas (Pütz et al. 2011).
Engagement with Indigenous communities
  • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
    • The principle of free, prior, and informed consent (FPIC) in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) is the foundation for engagement with Indigenous Peoples.
    • Particular to any potential Arctic research or deployment, The Inuit Circumpolar Council (2022) has published Circumpolar Inuit Protocols for Equitable and Ethical Engagement, which include eight protocols:
      • ‘Nothing About Us Without Us’ – Always Engage with Inuit
      • Recognize Indigenous Knowledge in its Own Right
      • Practice Good Governance
      • Communication with Intent
      • Exercising Accountability – Building Trust
      • Building Meaningful Partnerships
      • Information, Data Sharing, Ownership, and Permissions
      • Equitably Fund Inuit Representation and Knowledge
    • Any meaningful engagement with Indigenous peoples needs to consider context. Whyte (2018) states, “Indigenous voices should be involved in scientific and policy discussions of different types of geoengineering. But, context matters. Geoengineering discourses cannot just be associated with geoengineering to the exclusion of topics and solutions that Indigenous peoples value.”
  • Specific to Adding Snow:
    • Unknown
International vs national jurisdiction
  • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
    • For all Ice Management approaches, research and testing could be done within national jurisdiction (territorial seas or Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs); note that different legal rules apply to territorial seas and EEZs). Scalability may require deployment to additional areas within international waters.  See “Existing governance” for other available information on relevant governance structures.
  • Specific to Adding Snow:
    • Mostly national
      • For sea ice, research and testing could be done within national jurisdiction, but scalability may require deployment to additional areas within international waters in the Arctic Ocean. For glaciers and ice sheets, this technique would be deployed within national jurisdiction.
Existing governance
  • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
    • The Arctic Ocean is governed by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which includes all Arctic coastal states except the United States. The United States, however, is bound to customary law “including customs codified or that have emerged from UNCLOS” (Argüello and Johansson 2022).
      • UNCLOS and marine scientific research (MSR):
        • MSR is governed by Part XIII of UNCLOS. In general, the right of states to conduct MSR is subject to the rights and duties of other states under UNCLOS (UNCLOS Article 238). There is a duty on parties to promote and facilitate MSR (UNCLOS Article 239).
        • MSR shall be conducted exclusively for peaceful purposes, it may not unjustifiably interfere with other legitimate uses of the sea, and it must be conducted in compliance with all relevant regulations adopted in conformity with the Convention, including those for the protection and preservation of the marine environment (UNCLOS Article 240).
        • States are responsible and liable for damage caused by pollution of the marine environment arising out of MSR undertaken by them or on their behalf (UNCLOS Article 263(3)).
          • Any approaches that involve adding material or energy to the ocean that would cause or be likely to cause damage to the marine environment would constitute “pollution of the marine environment” within the meaning of Article 1(1)(4) of UNCLOS, and States would have a duty to minimize the pollution pursuant to Article 194.
        • National Jurisdiction and MSR under UNCLOS
          • In a coastal state’s territorial sea (12 nautical miles from shore baseline), the coastal state has the exclusive right to regulate, authorize, and conduct MSR.
          • In a coastal state’s EEZ (200 nautical miles from shore baseline), coastal states also have the right to regulate, authorize, and conduct MSR, and MSR by other states requires the consent of the coastal state (UNCLOS Article 246(2)). States ordinarily give their consent, and they are required to adopt rules to ensure that consent is not delayed or denied unreasonably. UNCLOS further specifies grounds for refusing consent, including if the MSR involves introducing harmful substances into the marine environment (UNCLOS Article 246(5)(b)).
        • Areas outside National Jurisdiction and MSR under UNCLOS
          • On the high seas, UNCLOS provides for freedom of MSR (UNCLOS Article 87(1)(f)), but it must be done with due regard for the interests of other States in their exercise of the freedom of the high seas (Articles 87(2)).
          • The high seas are reserved for peaceful purposes (Article 88) and no state may subject a portion of high seas to its sovereignty (Article 89).
        • The 2017 Agreement on Enhancing Arctic Scientific Cooperation is relevant. This is a legally binding agreement signed in 2017 by all Arctic States negotiated in the Arctic Council. It promotes international cooperation and favorable conditions for conducting scientific research, facilitates access to research areas, infrastructure, and facilities, and promotes education and training of scientists in Arctic issues. The agreement also encourages participants to utilize traditional and local knowledge as appropriate as well as encourages communication between traditional and local knowledge holders and participants. This may provide a framework for consultation with stakeholders including Indigenous peoples in intervention research, planning, and testing (Chuffart et al. 2023).
        • The Arctic Council has been called upon as a venue for providing oversight on approaches to slow the loss of Arctic sea ice, or to establish working groups to provide guidance (Bodansky and Hunt 2020, Bennett et al. 2022). If the objective of the approach is to slow the loss of Arctic sea ice, rather than altering global temperatures, the Arctic parties have the primary interest (Bodansky and Hunt 2020). However, the current geopolitical landscape and lack of participation from Russia makes consensus difficult.
        • See Argüello and Johansson (2022) for further details of governance related to ice management.
      • Specific to Adding Snow:
        • Unknown
          • Most snowmaking activities are occurring on private land at ski resorts.
Justice
  • Here we define justice related to approaches to slow the loss of Arctic sea ice through distributive justice, procedural justice, and restorative justice. Following COMEST (2023), we consider questions of ethics through a justice lens. Note that this is not an exhaustive list of justice dimensions and as the field advances, so will the related considerations and dimensions.
 
  • Distributive justice
    • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
      • If distributive justice is considered, the objective would be that benefits and costs of research or potential deployment of the approach be distributed fairly while protecting the basic rights of the most vulnerable.
    • Specific to Adding Snow:
      • No additional information.
  • Procedural justice
    • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
      • If procedural justice is considered, people affected by research would have an opportunity to participate and have a say in how the approach will be researched, deployed, and governed.
      • Bennett et al. (2022) suggests an inclusive governance approach that incorporates stakeholder concerns in the design and deployment of approaches and effectively communicates risk. Within the development of such a framework there is an opportunity to prioritize Indigenous self-determination and procedural justice (Chuffart et al. 2023). Note, however, that stakeholders may also include non-local people.
    • Specific to Adding Snow:
      • No additional information.
  • Restorative justice
    • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
      • If restorative justice is considered, plans would be developed for those who could be harmed by the approach to be compensated, rehabilitated, or restored.
    • Specific to Adding Snow:
      • No additional information.
Public engagement and perception
  • Unknown for Arctic sea ice application
    • Public support has improved over time for application to ski areas (Pütz et al. 2011).
Engagement with Indigenous communities
  • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
    • The principle of free, prior, and informed consent (FPIC) in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) is the foundation for engagement with Indigenous Peoples.
    • Particular to any potential Arctic research or deployment, The Inuit Circumpolar Council (2022) has published Circumpolar Inuit Protocols for Equitable and Ethical Engagement, which include eight protocols:
      • ‘Nothing About Us Without Us’ – Always Engage with Inuit
      • Recognize Indigenous Knowledge in its Own Right
      • Practice Good Governance
      • Communication with Intent
      • Exercising Accountability – Building Trust
      • Building Meaningful Partnerships
      • Information, Data Sharing, Ownership, and Permissions
      • Equitably Fund Inuit Representation and Knowledge
    • Any meaningful engagement with Indigenous peoples needs to consider context. Whyte (2018) states, “Indigenous voices should be involved in scientific and policy discussions of different types of geoengineering. But, context matters. Geoengineering discourses cannot just be associated with geoengineering to the exclusion of topics and solutions that Indigenous peoples value.”
  • Specific to Adding Snow:
    • Unknown
International vs national jurisdiction
  • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
    • For all Ice Management approaches, research and testing could be done within national jurisdiction (territorial seas or Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs); note that different legal rules apply to territorial seas and EEZs). Scalability may require deployment to additional areas within international waters.  See “Existing governance” for other available information on relevant governance structures.
  • Specific to Adding Snow:
    • Mostly national
      • For sea ice, research and testing could be done within national jurisdiction, but scalability may require deployment to additional areas within international waters in the Arctic Ocean. For glaciers and ice sheets, this technique would be deployed within national jurisdiction.
Existing governance
  • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
    • The Arctic Ocean is governed by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which includes all Arctic coastal states except the United States. The United States, however, is bound to customary law “including customs codified or that have emerged from UNCLOS” (Argüello and Johansson 2022).
      • UNCLOS and marine scientific research (MSR):
        • MSR is governed by Part XIII of UNCLOS. In general, the right of states to conduct MSR is subject to the rights and duties of other states under UNCLOS (UNCLOS Article 238). There is a duty on parties to promote and facilitate MSR (UNCLOS Article 239).
        • MSR shall be conducted exclusively for peaceful purposes, it may not unjustifiably interfere with other legitimate uses of the sea, and it must be conducted in compliance with all relevant regulations adopted in conformity with the Convention, including those for the protection and preservation of the marine environment (UNCLOS Article 240).
        • States are responsible and liable for damage caused by pollution of the marine environment arising out of MSR undertaken by them or on their behalf (UNCLOS Article 263(3)).
          • Any approaches that involve adding material or energy to the ocean that would cause or be likely to cause damage to the marine environment would constitute “pollution of the marine environment” within the meaning of Article 1(1)(4) of UNCLOS, and States would have a duty to minimize the pollution pursuant to Article 194.
        • National Jurisdiction and MSR under UNCLOS
          • In a coastal state’s territorial sea (12 nautical miles from shore baseline), the coastal state has the exclusive right to regulate, authorize, and conduct MSR.
          • In a coastal state’s EEZ (200 nautical miles from shore baseline), coastal states also have the right to regulate, authorize, and conduct MSR, and MSR by other states requires the consent of the coastal state (UNCLOS Article 246(2)). States ordinarily give their consent, and they are required to adopt rules to ensure that consent is not delayed or denied unreasonably. UNCLOS further specifies grounds for refusing consent, including if the MSR involves introducing harmful substances into the marine environment (UNCLOS Article 246(5)(b)).
        • Areas outside National Jurisdiction and MSR under UNCLOS
          • On the high seas, UNCLOS provides for freedom of MSR (UNCLOS Article 87(1)(f)), but it must be done with due regard for the interests of other States in their exercise of the freedom of the high seas (Articles 87(2)).
          • The high seas are reserved for peaceful purposes (Article 88) and no state may subject a portion of high seas to its sovereignty (Article 89).
        • The 2017 Agreement on Enhancing Arctic Scientific Cooperation is relevant. This is a legally binding agreement signed in 2017 by all Arctic States negotiated in the Arctic Council. It promotes international cooperation and favorable conditions for conducting scientific research, facilitates access to research areas, infrastructure, and facilities, and promotes education and training of scientists in Arctic issues. The agreement also encourages participants to utilize traditional and local knowledge as appropriate as well as encourages communication between traditional and local knowledge holders and participants. This may provide a framework for consultation with stakeholders including Indigenous peoples in intervention research, planning, and testing (Chuffart et al. 2023).
        • The Arctic Council has been called upon as a venue for providing oversight on approaches to slow the loss of Arctic sea ice, or to establish working groups to provide guidance (Bodansky and Hunt 2020, Bennett et al. 2022). If the objective of the approach is to slow the loss of Arctic sea ice, rather than altering global temperatures, the Arctic parties have the primary interest (Bodansky and Hunt 2020). However, the current geopolitical landscape and lack of participation from Russia makes consensus difficult.
        • See Argüello and Johansson (2022) for further details of governance related to ice management.
      • Specific to Adding Snow:
        • Unknown
          • Most snowmaking activities are occurring on private land at ski resorts.
Justice
  • Here we define justice related to approaches to slow the loss of Arctic sea ice through distributive justice, procedural justice, and restorative justice. Following COMEST (2023), we consider questions of ethics through a justice lens. Note that this is not an exhaustive list of justice dimensions and as the field advances, so will the related considerations and dimensions.
 
  • Distributive justice
    • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
      • If distributive justice is considered, the objective would be that benefits and costs of research or potential deployment of the approach be distributed fairly while protecting the basic rights of the most vulnerable.
    • Specific to Adding Snow:
      • No additional information.
  • Procedural justice
    • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
      • If procedural justice is considered, people affected by research would have an opportunity to participate and have a say in how the approach will be researched, deployed, and governed.
      • Bennett et al. (2022) suggests an inclusive governance approach that incorporates stakeholder concerns in the design and deployment of approaches and effectively communicates risk. Within the development of such a framework there is an opportunity to prioritize Indigenous self-determination and procedural justice (Chuffart et al. 2023). Note, however, that stakeholders may also include non-local people.
    • Specific to Adding Snow:
      • No additional information.
  • Restorative justice
    • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
      • If restorative justice is considered, plans would be developed for those who could be harmed by the approach to be compensated, rehabilitated, or restored.
    • Specific to Adding Snow:
      • No additional information.
Public engagement and perception
  • Unknown for Arctic sea ice application
    • Public support has improved over time for application to ski areas (Pütz et al. 2011).
Engagement with Indigenous communities
  • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
    • The principle of free, prior, and informed consent (FPIC) in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) is the foundation for engagement with Indigenous Peoples.
    • Particular to any potential Arctic research or deployment, The Inuit Circumpolar Council (2022) has published Circumpolar Inuit Protocols for Equitable and Ethical Engagement, which include eight protocols:
      • ‘Nothing About Us Without Us’ – Always Engage with Inuit
      • Recognize Indigenous Knowledge in its Own Right
      • Practice Good Governance
      • Communication with Intent
      • Exercising Accountability - Building Trust
      • Building Meaningful Partnerships
      • Information, Data Sharing, Ownership and Permissions
      • Equitably Fund Inuit Representation and Knowledge
    • Any meaningful engagement with Indigenous peoples needs to consider context. Whyte (2018) states, “Indigenous voices should be involved in scientific and policy discussions of different types of geoengineering. But, context matters. Geoengineering discourses cannot just be associated with geoengineering to the exclusion of topics and solutions that Indigenous peoples value.”
  • Specific to Adding Snow:
    • Unknown
International vs national jurisdiction
  • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
    • For all Ice Management approaches, research and testing could be done within national jurisdiction (territorial seas or Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs); note that different legal rules apply to territorial seas and EEZs). Scalability may require deployment to additional areas within international waters.  See “Existing governance” for other available information on relevant governance structures.
  • Specific to Adding Snow:
    • Mostly national
      • For sea ice, research and testing could be done within national jurisdiction, but scalability may require deployment to additional areas within international waters in the Arctic Ocean. For glaciers and ice sheets, this technique would be deployed within national jurisdiction.
Existing governance
  • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
    • The Arctic Ocean is governed by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which includes all Arctic coastal states except the United States. The United States, however, is bound to customary law “including customs codified or that have emerged from UNCLOS” (Argüello and Johansson 2022).
      • UNCLOS and marine scientific research (MSR):
        • MSR is governed by Part XIII of UNCLOS. In general, the right of states to conduct MSR is subject to the rights and duties of other states under UNCLOS (UNCLOS Article 238). There is a duty on parties to promote and facilitate MSR (UNCLOS Article 239).
        • MSR shall be conducted exclusively for peaceful purposes, it may not unjustifiably interfere with other legitimate uses of the sea, and it must be conducted in compliance with all relevant regulations adopted in conformity with the Convention, including those for the protection and preservation of the marine environment (UNCLOS Article 240).
        • States are responsible and liable for damage caused by pollution of the marine environment arising out of MSR undertaken by them or on their behalf (UNCLOS Article 263(3)).
          • Any approaches that involve adding material or energy to the ocean that would cause or be likely to cause damage to the marine environment would constitute “pollution of the marine environment” within the meaning of Article 1(1)(4) of UNCLOS, and States would have a duty to minimize the pollution pursuant to Article 194.
        • National Jurisdiction and MSR under UNCLOS
          • In a coastal state’s territorial sea (12 nautical miles from shore baseline), the coastal state has the exclusive right to regulate, authorize, and conduct MSR.
          • In a coastal state’s EEZ (200 nautical miles from shore baseline), coastal states also have the right to regulate, authorize, and conduct MSR, and MSR by other states requires the consent of the coastal state (UNCLOS Article 246(2)). States ordinarily give their consent, and they are required to adopt rules to ensure that consent is not delayed or denied unreasonably. UNCLOS further specifies grounds for refusing consent, including if the MSR involves introducing harmful substances into the marine environment (UNCLOS Article 246(5)(b)).
        • Areas outside National Jurisdiction and MSR under UNCLOS
          • On the high seas, UNCLOS provides for freedom of MSR (UNCLOS Article 87(1)(f)), but it must be done with due regard for the interests of other States in their exercise of the freedom of the high seas (Articles 87(2)).
          • The high seas are reserved for peaceful purposes (Article 88) and no state may subject a portion of high seas to its sovereignty (Article 89).
        • The 2017 Agreement on Enhancing Arctic Scientific Cooperation is relevant. This is a legally binding agreement signed in 2017 by all Arctic States negotiated in the Arctic Council. It promotes international cooperation and favorable conditions for conducting scientific research, facilitates access to research areas, infrastructure, and facilities, and promotes education and training of scientists in Arctic issues. The agreement also encourages participants to utilize traditional and local knowledge as appropriate as well as encourages communication between traditional and local knowledge holders and participants. This may provide a framework for consultation with stakeholders including Indigenous peoples in intervention research, planning, and testing (Chuffart et al. 2023).
        • The Arctic Council has been called upon as a venue for providing oversight on approaches to slow the loss of Arctic sea ice, or to establish working groups to provide guidance (Bodansky and Hunt 2020, Bennett et al. 2022). If the objective of the approach is to slow the loss of Arctic sea ice, rather than altering global temperatures, the Arctic parties have the primary interest (Bodansky and Hunt 2020). However, the current geopolitical landscape and lack of participation from Russia makes consensus difficult.
        • See Argüello and Johansson (2022) for further details of governance related to ice management.
      • Specific to Adding Snow:
        • Unknown
          • Most snowmaking activities are occurring on private land at ski resorts.
Justice
  • Here we define justice related to approaches to slow the loss of Arctic sea ice through distributive justice, procedural justice, and restorative justice. Following COMEST (2023), we consider questions of ethics through a justice lens. Note that this is not an exhaustive list of justice dimensions and as the field advances, so will the related considerations and dimensions.
 
  • Distributive justice
    • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
      • If distributive justice is considered, the objective would be that benefits and costs of research or potential deployment of the approach be distributed fairly while protecting the basic rights of the most vulnerable.
    • Specific to Adding Snow:
      • No additional information.
  • Procedural justice
    • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
      • If procedural justice is considered, people affected by research would have an opportunity to participate and have a say in how the approach will be researched, deployed, and governed.
      • Bennett et al. (2022) suggests an inclusive governance approach that incorporates stakeholder concerns in the design and deployment of approaches and effectively communicates risk. Within the development of such a framework there is an opportunity to prioritize Indigenous self-determination and procedural justice (Chuffart et al. 2023). Note, however, that stakeholders may also include non-local people.
    • Specific to Adding Snow:
      • No additional information.
  • Restorative justice
    • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
      • If restorative justice is considered, plans would be developed for those who could be harmed by the approach to be compensated, rehabilitated, or restored.
    • Specific to Adding Snow:
      • No additional information.
Public engagement and perception
  • Unknown for Arctic sea ice application
    • Public support has improved over time for application to ski areas (Pütz et al. 2011).
Engagement with Indigenous communities
  • Applicable to all approaches within Ice Management:
    • The principle of free, prior and informed consent (FPIC) in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) is the foundation for engagement with Indigenous Peoples.
    • Particular to any potential Arctic research or deployment, The Inuit Circumpolar Council (2022) has published Circumpolar Inuit Protocols for Equitable and Ethical Engagement, which include eight protocols:
      • ‘Nothing About Us Without Us’ – Always Engage with Inuit
      • Recognize Indigenous Knowledge in its Own Right
      • Practice Good Governance
      • Communication with Intent
      • Exercising Accountability - Building Trust
      • Building Meaningful Partnerships
      • Information, Data Sharing, Ownership and Permissions
      • Equitably Fund Inuit Representation and Knowledge
    • Any meaningful engagement with Indigenous peoples needs to consider context. Whyte (2018) states, “Indigenous voices should be involved in scientific and policy discussions of different types of geoengineering. But, context matters. Geoengineering discourses cannot just be associated with geoengineering to the exclusion of topics and solutions that Indigenous peoples value.”
  • Specific to Adding Snow:
    • Unknown

Projects from Ocean CDR Community

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Arctic Protection
Pollution Management
Ice Management
Solar Radiation Modification
Surface Albedo Modification

Ice Management
Adding snow
Blocking ice export
Ice thickening
Relocating icebergs

Adding snow
State of Approach
Knowledge Gaps
First-Order Priorities
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